TOP 100 SCIENCE SITES
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| Questions on Deep-Sea Biology Jeffrey Marlow answers questions about deep-sea vents at Hydrate Ridge. feeds.nytimes.com |
Humans found a nicer way to evolve Kindness and co-operation have played a crucial role in raising humans to the top of the evolutionary tree, argues Frans de WaalMost popular accounts of evolution stress the innate selfishness of the process. Species change because individuals are driven by a blind urge to thrive at the expense of others, it is claimed. Frans de Waal begs to differ.The 61-year-old head of the primate behaviour department at Emory University, Atlanta, believes the success of Homo sapiens rests primarily with our capacity for empathy and our urge to understand and appreciate others. We possess an innate sensitivity to the emotional status of other members of our species. Indeed, this understanding is possessed by most mammals, particularly primates, but especially by humans. We have thrived on the milk of human kindness, says de Waal.Most interpretations present evolution as a selfish process. Do you believe this blinds us to understanding the importance of cooperation?Yes. We need to separate the process of evolution – which is, indeed, a self-serving process – and the actual motivations of animals. For example, sex evolved as a means to ensure reproduction, but not everyone thinks about reproduction when they are having sex. That is why we have the morning-after pill. So although a characteristic may have evolved for a selfish reason that does not mean it operates, psychologically, in a selfish way. That is why empathy evolved.But what triggered its arrival?There is an increasing consensus among biologists that empathy arrived with the evolution of maternal care in mammals. A female needs to be in touch with her offspring and understand when they are in danger or trouble. That probably explains why women tend to be more empathetic than men. There are also biochemical clues. The female mammalian hormone oxytocin seems to be a key controller. If you study cooperative and competitive behaviour among a group of men and women, and then you spray them with oxytocin, you get an increase in trust and empathy in those behaviours. That occurs because of this ancient link between maternal care and empathy.The crucial point is that all mammals are capable of displaying some kind of empathy. At its basic level, an animal becomes sensitive to the emotions of others and often adopts some of those emotions. If one is happy and joyful, the others become happy and joyful. That is called emotional contagion and it has been studied in many animals, even mice.However, more complex animals go beyond this. They try to understand the origins of another animal's emotional status – to try to appreciate why they are sad or happy. Mice don't do that but animals such as primates, dolphins and elephants do. In humans, this emotional perspective appears around the age of two and correlates to the appearance of self-awareness. That link is displayed across species. The more self-aware an animal is, the more empathetic it tends to be.So how important has empathy been in the evolution of Homo sapiens?It has been extremely important. It holds our societies together and drives us to care for the sick and the elderly for example. It also allows us to get along in cities. Chimpanzees – which can be very tolerant of others – would simply not put up with being surrounded by strangers of their own species and would start killing one another. Humans do not do this. They put up with masses of strangers around them. In that sense, we are very strange: we can tolerate others in huge numbers.So is it harmful to focus on our alleged selfishness?Yes. It is extremely dangerous. Many economists are great believers in the idea that everything in nature is competitive and that we should set up a society which is competitive to reflect that. Anyone who cannot keep up, well too bad.I believe that is a total misinterpretation of the facts. The individual is not all-important. Yes, we can be selfish but we are also highly empathetic and supportive. These features define us and should be built into society.EvolutionBiologyRobin McKieguardian.co.uk © Guardian News & Media Limited 2010 | Use of this content is subject to our Terms & Conditions | More Feeds guardian.co.uk |
Research shows 'Hobbit' deformed human, not new species The row over the so-called "hobbit" found on the Indonesian island of Flores has flared again. abc.net.au |
Phone scammers target computer owners Computer owners are being warned not to fall for phone scammers who pretend to be from the software giant Microsoft. abc.net.au |
Contraceptive gel could offer alternative to pill Women in gel trials report no side effects often associated with the pill, such as weight gain and acneA new contraceptive gel that is applied directly to the skin could offer women an alternative to the pill, a study suggests.The clear gel is put on once a day and delivers a dose of hormones to prevent pregnancy. Women using the gel have reported none of the typical side effects associated with the pill, such as weight gain and acne.It is suitable for breastfeeding women, who are often warned not to take the combined pill because its hormone levels interfere with milk supply.The gel can be applied to the abdomen, thighs, arms or shoulders and is quickly absorbed, with no residue. Experts hope to bring it to market if clinical trial results continue to be positive.Dr Ruth Merkatz, director of clinical development of reproductive health at the not-for-profit Population Council research centre in New York, led the latest study on the gel, which involved 18 women in their 20s to 30s.Over the course of seven months, none of the women fell pregnant and the gel had "very high acceptability", she said.The research found the optimum dose was 3mg a day. "They only need to use a small quantity, once a day," Merkatz said. "From this small study we found it was effective."Merkatz, who is presenting the findings at the American Society for Reproductive Medicine, said the gel could enhance women's choices. "It is really helpful to have different ways of administering contraception."The key drug in the gel is Nestorone, a new type of progesterone. The product also contains a type of oestrogen that is chemically identical to the oestrogen produced by a woman's body. Both these hormones play an important role in pregnancy and the gel works by interfering with their normal patterns of production.Merkatz said Nestorone does not appear to have any of the negative effects seen in oral contraceptives, such as weight gain. "This could be a reason why women might choose it," she said. "It's in early-stage development but if we move on, we will obviously test it in many, many more women."Natika Halil, director of information at the Family Planning Association, said: "Any contraceptive system that increases the choice of methods available to women and helps to prevent unwanted pregnancies is welcome."Our research shows there are approximately 2 million women using a contraceptive method that they are unhappy with, so they will benefit from improved choices and options. This product won't suit everyone and will only be for women comfortable putting it on their skin and having their contraceptive cover that way."Simon Blake, chief executive of the sexual health charity Brook, said: "Obviously this is still in the very early stages of development but anything that can help young women has got to be a good thing. Clearly what young women need is more choice."The drug is being developed with the drug firm Antares Pharma. More than 3 million women in the UK use the pill, making it the most popular form of contraception for women.ReproductionMedical researchPregnancyHealthHealth & wellbeingFamilyguardian.co.uk © Guardian News & Media Limited 2010 | Use of this content is subject to our Terms & Conditions | More Feeds guardian.co.uk |